Sociology Chapter 1-2 Notes

Chapter I

History of Sociology 

Prior to the birth of sociology, philosophers and theologians were mostly concerned with imagining the ideal society that is life as it ought to be. None attempted an analysis of real society as it was. Sociology is rooted in the works of philosophers including Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius. Some other early scholars also took perspectives that were sociological.  The Enlightenment thinkers took a great amount of interest in this subject and hence set a stage for the sociologists that would follow. The Enlightenment thinkers were the first one to put up a general explanation of social world. They were able to detach themselves, at least in principle, from explaining some existing ideology and attempt to lay down general principles that explained social life. Writers and philosophers of this period included well-known persons like: John Locke, Hume, Voltaire, Kant, Monstesquieu, Hobbes and Rousseau. Sociology as a discipline emerged in response to social problems that plagued Europe in the late 1700s and early 1800s.

August Comte

• Coined the term "sociology" in 1836. 
• He was a french social philosopher. He was originally an engineering student. 
• Known as the Modern father of Sociology. 
• His literary works include Positive Philosophy, The System of Positive Polity.  
• Comte studied society's history in three divided intellectual stages. The first one was Theological stage which included medieval period in which society was seen as following the will of deity. The second, or metaphysical stage is from the Enlightenment and focused on the forces of 'nature' but not God to explain social events. The third one was positivistic, or scientific stage. 
• His broad division of society is still widely followed which is as Social Statics (social structure) and Social Dynamics (social change). 
• During Comte's lifetime, scientists were learning more about the laws that govern the physical world. For example, in the area of physics, Sir Isaac Newton had developed the law of gravity. In such a way, many other Fields such as biology were exceeding in advancement as well. Just as there were testable facts regarding gravity and other natural laws, Comte thought that sociology could draw on the same resources as the natural sciences, namely observations experimentation and comparison. It was in this context that Comte introduced the concept of positivism to sociology -- the idea of turning speculation about human society into a scientific discipline. He believed that with this new understanding, sociologists can understand the problems of world and build a safer and better world for people to live. 
• Comte died in 1857. He was 60 years old. 

Harriet Martineau

• Comte's Positive Philosophy was translated into English by Harriet Martineau. Her work impressed Comte so much as a result of translation that he had her abridgement re translated back into French. 
• Martineau was a prolific writer and a best selling author as well who mainly focused on writing about Social issues of society. 
• Her work earned her recognition as the first female sociologist and "Mother of Sociology."
• She got better education than most of female students at that time because her parents were Unitarians. She spent most of time reading books and writing after losing most of her hearing power at the age of 12. 
• She authored hundreds of books, articles and editorials on topics including literature, children's literature, politics, history, religion, economics, and sociology. 
• Overall her works laid down the groundwork for both the interpretive and feminist paradigms of modern sociologists. 
• He literary works include: Society in America, How to Observe Morals and Manners, Eastern Life: Past and Present, Household Education. 

Abu Zaid Abdal Rahman Ibn Khaldun

• He advocated the empirical research and has been called an excellent deductive sociologist who was "more positivistic than Durkheim."
• He was born in Tunis, North Africa, he worked for North African princes as emissary and administrative positions. 
• Regarded among the modern fathers of historiography, and economics. He is also known as the Muslim father of sociology.
• He was the father of Arab Social Sciences. 
• Coined term Ilm-ul-imraan for Sociology. 
• Introduced concept of Al-asbiyah which means Group Solidarity. 
• Literary works: Al-Muqqadimah (The Rise and Fall of Empires) 
• Ibn Khaldun lived the last years of his life in Egypt as a scholar, teacher and magistrate. 

Chapter II

• A theory is the analysis and statement of how and why a set of facts relates to each other. In sociology, theories help us understand how social phenomena relate to each other. Theories help sociologists explain why and how society works. through the use of theory, they work to answer such questions as "why are things as they are, what conditions produce them, and what conditions change them into something else? If we have such a theory we will at last be in a position to know what we really can do about the shape of our society. By understanding the real causes of how and why things operate as they do, we can find ways to address the things that need improvement. 

Sociological Perspective

• Sociological Perspective means an approach to understanding human behaviour by placing it within its broader social context.  It is a set of assumptions about reality that underlies the questions we ask and the kinds of answers we arrive at a result. For example: seeing strange in the familiar is a common observation when different people or groups visualise a similar subject. 
• Paradigms are the broad assumptions about how the world works. On such basis of paradigms, scientists develop disciplines. These paradigms guide the way social scientists develop theories, conduct research and evaluate evidence. Since these paradigms encompass assumptions about how various parts of the world are connected, they guide responses to perceived situations and solutions to any problems that are identified. 
• An example in the field of medicine illustrates this concept. (1) Very early theories regarding diseases consisted of ideas as satanic state of mind, magic or deities as the cause of such a condition. In order to treat them bloodletting (draining blood from the body) or a procedure called trephination in which holes were made in the skull using sharp stones. (2) Hippocrates popularised the theoretical paradigm that disease was supernatural phenomenon. He developed that diseases occurred due to imbalance of four humors as hot, cold, dry, and wet within the body. Based on this theories, methods were developed to treat people such as cool someone with a heat-related illness. This remained dominant theory for centuries. (3) The germ theory was guided was Louis Pasteur, and after this research treatments began to focus on fighting the bacteria. Sometimes all of these treatments worked, regardless of whether evil spirits were actually released, humors were rebalanced, germs were killed, or some other mechanism, was the actual cause of the recovery. Results, however tend to explain according to the prevailing paradigms of the time. 

Sociological perspectives are divided into two groups as Macro-level and Micro-level of orientations in society. 

Macroperspectives 

This focuses on the broad social structures. These look at social processes throughout the society. For example, the economy, the government, and the health-care system. Sociologists are interested in the fact that how these macro-level orientations interrelate, fit together and any troubles or stress within these interrelationships. 

Microperspectives

A focus on social interaction in specific situations. These focus on the patterns of individual interactions. For example, the social theorists who take a micro perspective under focus examine the daily interaction of a person. They are interested in why and how individuals relate to each other, how our interactions are shaped by larger society and how these can in turn change the society.

Feminism 

Macro level approach. Feminism is the advocacy of social equality for men and women (in education and employment) in opposition to patriarchy and sexism. Feminism views the personal experiences of women and men through the lens of gender. How we think of ourselves (gender identity), how we act (gender roles) and how are our sexes' social standing (gender stratification). Stratification means society's categorisation of people into socioeconomic class or a region. Are all rooted in the operation of our society. Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to earn fair wages or equal pay, to own property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to promote bodily autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence.

gender equity symbol

Gender Equity

Every gender has different needs, which are of contrasting natures. Hence their needs shall be fulfilled according to their needs. This requires ensuring that everyone has access to a full range of opportunities to achieve the social, psychological and physical benefits that come from participating and leading in sport and physical activity. Therefore, some activities may be the same as those offered to boys and men, some may be altered, and some may be altogether different.

Major Sociological Perspectives

There  is  no  clearly  identifiable  date  when  sociological  theory  began.However, the mid-to-late 1800s marks the period when social thought turned to what we today call sociology.There  are  currently  three  major  theoretical  paradigms  in  sociology:  the  structural-functionalist  paradigm,  the  social-conflict  paradigm,  and  the symbolic-interactionist paradigm. No one of these three perspectives is singularly “right” or “wrong.” Each provides a different way to view and analyze society. They can reveal different issues and suggest different answers totackling any problems they identify. Two of the major paradigms, the structural-functionalist and the social-conflict perspective, take a macro perspective on society. The third perspective, symbolic-interactionism, takes a micro perspective.

Structural Functionalism

Structural-functionalism  is  the  earliest  sociological  paradigm.  It  is rooted in the scientific advances of the physical sciences occurring in the nineteenth  century.  Based  on  these  advances,  Herbert  Spencer approached  the  study  of  social  structures  through  an  “organic  analogy”  that emphasized evolutionary laws. In this model, Spencer viewed society as being similar to a body. In the most simplistic terms, just as the various organs in the body work together to keep the entire system functioning and regulated, the various parts of society (the economy, the polity, health care, education, etc.) work together to keep the entire society functioning and regulated.Spencer also saw similarities in the way physical bodies and societies evolve.Spencer actually coined the term survival of the fittest,which is often incorrectly attributed to evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin.

Spencer  influenced  early  French  sociologist  Emile  Durkheim. Durkheim took this organic analogy and refined it into a perspective that would become structural-functionalism.The perspective is also called functionalism,or the functionalist paradigm.This paradigm views society as a complex system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability. According to this perspective; (1) a social system’s parts are interdependent; (2) the system has a “normal” healthy state of equilibrium, analogous to a healthy body; and(3) when disturbed, the system parts reorganize and readjust to bring the system back to a state of equilibrium. Any changes in society occur in structured, evolutionary ways.

Durkheim realized that society influences our human actions but that society is also something that exists beyond individuals. He felt that society must be studied and understood in terms of what he called social facts.These social facts include laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals,and  the  myriad  cultural  and  social  rules  governing  social  life. Durkheim saw this system of social facts as making up the structure of society.

Functionalism has been very influential in sociology. It was especially popular in the United States when championed by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons  (1902–79)  during  the  1940s  and  1950s.  Parsons,  profiled  below,  is 

Robert K Merton a student of Talcott Parsons, also showed that social patterns are complex, with the various parts of society fulfilling different types of functions. Some functions, which Merton called manifest functions,are obvious and intended.Other functions, called la-tent functions,are less recognized and unintended.These functions may be either beneficial or neutral. However, some functions may be undesirable.These are called social dysfunctions. A simple illustration of these concepts is the widespread use of cars in America  and  many  other  countries.  Cars  provide  transportation and status. Both are manifest functions. Cars also provide personal autonomy, allowing drivers to come and go as they please, on their own schedules.This is a latent function of the vehicular transportation system as it currently exists. However, cars also pollute the environment. Thus, relying on cars as a major means of transportation is also dysfunctional in that regard.Structural-functionalists also recognize that as one part of the system changes, other parts of the system have to readjust to accommodate the change that has taken place elsewhere. A change in one part of the system may have manifest, latent, and dysfunctional consequences. For example, pharmacies, bookstores, dry cleaners, and restaurants have seen business decline as bar business increased.

For example, Religion:

Menifest:        Social solidarity moral values

Latent:            Purpose of life, satisfaction

Dysfunction:  Terrorism and extremism 

Social Conflict Theory 

The other major macro-sociological theoretical framework in sociological  theory  is  the  social-conflict  paradigm,  also  referred  to  as  the  conflict  perspective. Social-conflict  theory focuses  on  competition  between  groups.Whereas functionalists focus on balance and stability within a social system,conflict theorists view society as comprised of social relations characterized by inequality and change.According to conflict theorists, groups are constantly competing for unequally distributed resources, such as wealth and power, with each group seeking to benefit their own interests. In this scenario, one or a few groups control these  resources  at  the  expense  of  others.  Thus,  these  theorists  look  at  social structures and ask, “Who benefits?” This constant conflict between groups also results in social change.

The works of Karl Marx (1818–83) are often credited with providing the sociological roots of the conflict perspective.Marx (profiled below) was born in Prussia, now Germany, during the stormy period in which western Europe was transitioning from feudalism to capitalism. The Industrial Revolution was in full swing, and Marx observed inequality throughout the growing capitalist society.The economics of capitalism, he felt, resulted in social classes that were constantly  in  competition  for  society’s  limited  resources.  Marx  saw  rich  factory owners who obtained their wealth from the labor of factory workers who were paid little, often toiled long hours in dangerous conditions, and frequently lived in crowded and unhealthy spaces. Society, as Marx saw it, was an ongoing struggle between the classes: the “haves” (illustrated by the factory owners) and the“have  nots”  (illustrated  by  the  workers).  The  result  was  social  conflict  and change as those without resources challenged those holding the resources for apiece of the proverbial pie. Often times Marx is criticized for not talking about Middle class of that time, but sadly there was none due to drastic differences among social classes. Overall Marx focused on issues like social class, class conflict, class consciousness, means or modes of production, capitalism, and communism.

Another philosopher Max Weber talked about formal organisations, bureaucracy, concept of three P's (power, property, prestige), social action theory, authority, social class, and theory of rationalization. 

Symbolic Interaction-ism 

Symbolic interactionism is the prevailing micro-theoretical frame work in sociological theory. As a micro-level perspective, symbolic interactionism focuses on patterns of individual interactions.Although sociologists working in this tradition recognize that larger social structures exist and are important in shaping our lives, they point out that society is actually created by people inter-acting together on a daily basis. It is these smaller interactions that actually makeup the larger social structures that are of the focus of functionalists and conflict theorists. According to this perspective, society and these larger social structures must be understood through studying social interactions that are based on shared understandings, languages, and symbols, segregation of men and women, dress codes etc.. A symbol is something that stands for,represents, or signifies something else in a particular culture.Symbols can be anything—gestures, words, objects, or events—and they can represent any number of others things, ideas, events, or emotions. Symbolic interactionists argue that we are able to interact with others be-cause we create symbols and learn to interpret what those symbols mean in our interactions. Thus, symbolic interactionism is sometimes referred to as interpretive theory.Social change occurs as people develop a shared understanding that a change needs to take place and interact to make that change happen. For example, a word has no inherent meaning. A word is merely a simple noise but it becomes a "word" when we attach certain meanings to it.